Comparing Income Statements From Different Industries Essay - 1

Comparing Income Statements From Different Industries - Essay Example Their 2013 and 2014 annual reports will facilitate this analysis. The gross profit margin shows the ability of an entity to control its cost of sales and management’s efficiency in producing each unit of a product (Tracy, 2012). From table 1 above, the gross profit margins for General Motors, Alliance Pharmaceutical, Inc., Apple Inc. and Walmart Inc. were 13.19%, 60.29%, 38.58% and 24.82% respectively. Operating profit margin, on the other hand, shows an entity’s ability to control its operating expenses such as selling and distribution costs, and administrative expenses. From table I, operating profit margins for General Motors, Alliance Pharmaceutical, Inc., Apple Inc. and Walmart Inc. were 3.30%, 29.35%, 28.72% and 5.64% respectively. In the same context, the net profit margin indicates an entity’s ability to control its financing expenses (Tracy, 2012). In this regard, General Motors, Alliance Pharmaceutical, Inc., Apple Inc. and Walmart Inc.’s net profit margins were 3.43%, 21.06%, 21.61% and 3.36% respectively as shown in table 1 above. Besides the effects of operating expenses and financing activities on the profit margins computed above, the Entrepreneur Media, Inc. (2009) associates the differences in these margins to the different industries that the companies analyzed in this case operate in. As such, these industries treat their inventories differently from each other1. This paper aimed at comparing profit margins for different companies, operating in different industries. From this comparison, it has been evidenced that an entity’s ability to control its costs, directly affects its gross profit margin, operating profit margin, and net profit margin. Additionally, the different ways in which different entities in different industries account for their inventories also affect their

Earlier Women of the Twentieth Century Essay Example for Free

Earlier Women of the Twentieth Century Essay The essay is based on the examination of discourses concerning the establishment of women and analysis of shifting patterns of child care within households in the opening decades of the early twentieth century, this study argues that although household divisions of labour by gender and age existed in early modern era, a more rigid female specialization in certain types of domestic work in housekeeping and child-rearing as opposed to childbearing and expected participation in more varied forms of productive labour developed during the modern era, especially for young married women. Beginning with the middle-class concern, women started loosing their morals towards family and children. It was due to the changing attitude of women that children that once were considered dependents and consumers became income earners and productive workers in their households. A number of recent studies of colonial Spanish and Portuguese America, for instance, have demonstrated that European notions of family honour and sexual morality were adapted in specific ways to the American colonies. Commoners in early modern Spain who testified before the Inquisition resisted the idea that it was sinful to have consensual sexual relations with prostitutes or non-virgin single women. This attitude was probably common in Portugal as well. Resistance to the church’s moral prescriptions grew considerably in the Americas, where European men frequently considered it their right to take Indian or African women, and equated their status with that of single women, regardless of their virginity, previous marriage, or the terms of their consent. (Caulfield, 2000, p. 5) In contrast, for elite families in Brazil and throughout Spanish and Portuguese America marriage alliances were crucial political and economic strategies up to the nineteenth century and even later in some areas. (Caulfield, 2000, p. 6) Parents chose children’s, especially daughters’, marriage partners with care. Legitimate birth and ‘purity of blood’ which came to mean the absence of African and Indian heritage was essential elements of status, and hence family honour, although ‘stains’ could often be washed away with money. Tremendous value was placed on the sexual chastity of privileged colonial women, who were generally considered white. Elite women’s seclusion not only marked them as morally superior to common women in the eyes of their peers but, also ensured the endogamy of their class and race. Scholars disagree about how to interpret this social reality, for both the colonial period and later. Some point to the high numbers of consensual unions, illegitimate children, and female-headed households to argue that the popular classes developed a set of alternative moral values in which patriarchal notions of family, women’s subordination, and the moral ideals of marriage and women’s chastity were relatively unimportant. An existence passed almost entirely within the confines of the domestic sphere, as was the case for the majority of the women interviewed, favours the recollection of events and deeds associated with that area of activity. So it is not surprising that they supplied often very precise details about daily life, more than their husbands would have been able to do, right down to the price of groceries and their husbands’ wages during the early years of their marriage. (Caulfield, 2000, p. 56) This â€Å"family memory† does not, however, operate according to the same dates or points of reference as does official history. On many occasions during the course of the interviews, the framework of events was reconstructed around the years when children were born, a close relative died or a move took place. The women were questioned more about how they had lived rather than what they had witnessed of the events which took place around them, an approach which, in theory, minimizes the risk of mistakes or oversights. We ought not, however, overlook the fact that respondents generally attempt to preserve the image they have of themselves or of the group to which they belong. This image refers to a socially and sexually oriented construction, but one whose elements may change according to the historical period. Even if these variations alter what was taboo into what is now acceptable, behaviours that were deemed deviant in previous years-premarital pregnancy, for example-can be more difficult to ascertain. Despite present-day tolerance of behaviour of this kind, the person being questioned knows that she transgressed the norm that was in force at the time and may still feel so embarrassed that she seeks to disguise the fact, even if it means lying about the date of her marriage or the year her first child was born. According to Uno (1999) â€Å"Rather than a deliberate and conscious lie, experience reveals that omissions and evasive responses are the means used to avoid an embarrassing question that has revived painful memories†. (Uno, 1999, p. 74) Whether conscious or not, these â€Å"oversights† and â€Å"mistakes† are as significant as the memory of an event and ought to be submitted to analysis when they can be identified. Even if parents were generally content to exercise a discreet and indirect surveillance over the unmarried couple, they rarely found themselves alone with one another, so important was it to preserve the young woman’s virginity, whether or not she was of age. This concern would even grow with industrialization and the appearance of new places for young people to meet away from traditional family settings, since it became more difficult to exercise control over the young. On dates, the parents made sure that the couple was accompanied by a brother, a sister, other adults, or, if necessary, their friends. The revolution in traditions and norms took place in 1930 when domestic labour was in the context of the depression. This involved a sample of women who were already married at the beginning of that decade. The most catastrophic year according to the economic indicators, 1933, was used as a reference point. The reason was nothing other than the emergence of classes in the era, which were the resultant of lack of opportunities. The probability that women who married much after this date would have felt the effects of the Depression on their domestic labour was indeed less great. Nevertheless, in order to be able to establish comparisons, it was necessary to find women who had spent the early years of their marriages before the depression or whose husbands had been working during the first months of the marriage. The influence of the Depression and of unemployment was felt largely in urban areas and it was the men of the working class, especially unskilled labourers, and tradesmen who were primarily affected. These factors thus determined the selection of respondents who had to have lived in a working-class district of Montreal in the years between 1929 and 1939. The residence qualification, while it may seem rather vague, permitted us to enlist women who, because of their partners’ occupations, had shared the living conditions of the working class without necessarily presuming their own class affiliations. It was the factory workers who changed their occupation least often though the majority of them worked for more than one employer. They worked longer than the other women in the sample; it is among this group that is found the four women who worked for more than ten years before marriage. On the other hand, domestic work, generally detested because of its servile character and because of the extremely long hours which it entailed, is where we observe the greatest mobility, as only one informant worked exclusively as a domestic and she did so for a rather short period of time (one year). Domestics’ wages were extremely low, between one and five dollars a week, but according to one informant, â€Å"What our parents counted was the food. You understand, if you have two working, that’s two less to feed†. (Baillargeon Klein, 1999, p. 57) Most of the time, domestic work represented a transitional occupation between the home and the factory, or the office or shop. These jobs, factory worker, saleswoman or clerk, generally involved a noticeable increase in salary, but what was more appreciated were the working conditions, particularly regular hours and the possibility of contact with other working women. â€Å"It was clean, and we weren’t bored. It wasn’t like in the private homes, where the day was never over. The hell with private homes! We were happy enough-we had our evenings free†. (Baillargeon Klein, 1999, p. 96) In this connection, it must be stressed that it was not simply the household tasks or the conditions inherent in this kind of work that put them off, but also, and most particularly, the context in which they arose. Beyond the isolation, the arbitrary employers, the long hours, and the array of tasks demanded of them, what they detested above all else was the idea of being ‘in service to’ someone else, of playing the subordinate’s role in a highly personalized relationship. One major way that early modern women constructed selves, was through social networks, often women’s networks. These women fashioned their identities in relation to salons, convents, family circles, epistolary communities, and social religious groups devoted to particular reading or singing practices. For example, a trend towards devotional intimacy in France travelled through women’s letter writing, and psalm singing in churches established connections across gender and class barriers. (Adele Mikesell, 2003, p. 36) Conclusion Recent trends in women’s studies and feminist theory have influenced the conceptual framework and methodology of the facts explored about the early twentieth century women. While historians have traditionally explored continuities and discontinuities in ideas, institutions, and practices, postmodernism has given new dimension to the exploration of opposition or rupture not only in the facts, events, and ideas being studied, but also in the conceptual frameworks scholars analyse the changes that took place between 1900 and 1945. For some years, however, women’s history and the history of the family have underscored the importance of the domestic sphere and of the work which women do in it in order to understand the totality of historical reality. The work undertaken in these fields has provided evidence of the connections which exist between the family and the world of work and of the central role played in this dynamic by women. References/ Bibliography Adele Seeff Mikesell Margaret, (2003) Culture and Change: Attending to Early Modern Women: University of Delaware Press: Newark, DE. Baillargeon Denyse Klein YvonneMaking, (1999) Do: Women, Family, and Home in Montreal during the Great Depression: Wilfrid Laurier University Press: Waterloo, Ont. Caulfield Sueann, (2000) In Defense of Honor: Sexual Morality, Modernity, and Nation i

Proportional Representation Electoral System

Proportional Representation Electoral System Critically compare and discuss the major differences and similarities between proportional representation and majoritarian electoral systems. Which criteria are the most important ones with which to judge an electoral system in a new democracy? How does each system perform on these criteria? Resulting from an in-depth investigation into the establishment of new democracies, this essay explores the view that Proportional Representation electoral system (henceforth PR) promotes better stability, as opposed to the Majoritarian electoral system, which occasionally leads to instability. It is how a party interprets votes into parliamentary seats in each electoral system that determines which system to perform better. It is upon this factor that this essay will attest the claim that PR promotes an increase in social representation in parliaments. Although majoritarian systems do stipulate greater stability and accountability in governments, this does not support the belief that PR systems disregard a governments stability or culpability; each system tends to highlight certain factors, where others do not. This essay will commence by explaining the elements that characterise both PR and majoritarian electoral systems, after which it shall be seen how each system performs in the criteria of accountability, social representation and stability in a new democracy. It is in a new democracy where the most support for the government is needed; this is resulting from the often controversial past experienced in these nations before evolving into a democracy. By looking at South Africas first democratic election in 1994, and their utilisation of the PR system, one discovers why in this context a PR system most suited. The majoritarian system, which can be divided into two subsections, namely plurality and the second ballot majority run-off system, is the oldest electoral system having originated in the 12th century (Norris, 1997: 299). In both instances, the nation is separated into territorial single-memberconstituencies. Plurality decrees all citizens vote for a candidate party; while votes are counted, the party with the majority of votes in a specific constituency is granted the parliamentary seats for that region. The party with the most seats in the parliament will ultimately be the governing party (Norris, 1997: 301). For a government to come into power through the second ballot run-off system, the government would need to win the absolute majority of 50% +1; in cases where this does not occur, the two top contenders from the first round of elections run alongside each other in a second round of voting (Norris, 1997: 302).It is the majoritarian system of representation that sees larger part ies winning a higher proportion of seats than the proportion of votes they gain in an election (Heywood, 2007: 256). This increases the chance of a single party gaining a parliamentary majority and being able to govern independently (Heywood, 2007: 256). The PR system, which also divides countries into constituencies, is most often made up of multi-member districts, larger in size, which is geographically defined. Lists are presented by each party of their districts number of parliamentary seats available; lists in some countries are open to voters, allowing them to rank their candidate preferences, whereas some lists are closed and only made visible to the party. Seats, instead of being given to the majority winner, are granted according to a partys percentage of votes received (Norris, 1997: 303). This system guarantees an equal relationship between seats won by a party and the votes gained in an election. In instances were PR is implemented at its purest form, a party gaining 60 per cent of the vote would win exactly 60 per cent of the seats (Heywood, 2007: 256). PR systems, thus, make single-party majority rule unlikely, rather allowing for coalition governments or multi-party systems (Heywood, 2007: 256). Each electoral system majoritarian or PR has its own advantages and disadvantages. It does, however, depend on a new democracys main concerns and its aims, hopefully to be achieved, that would decide which system to implement. New democracies have clearly come from somewhere disagreeable in terms of democratic values, and so because they have experienced a severe shortage of representativeness as was the case with Mexico, Chile, South Africa, and Tunisia they will overwhelmingly want to replace this with representativeness (Pettinger, 2012).In order to achieve an increased representativeness, countries would most likely prefer the use of PR as it allows previously unheard minority groups the chance to voice their concerns. In terms of government accountability, both systems contain different quantities of this within. The majoritarian system, which allows candidates receiving the most votes in a constituency to have a seat, bestows the masses the ability to hold someone responsible, in this instance the victorious party member, in a specific area. The masses have the choice, during each election, to give their support or help vote a certain member out of power. As a result, representatives of the constituency are further stimulated to help voice the concerns of the people in that area. This motivates service production in the most successful style and, simultaneously, fortifies the bond with the constituency (Norris, 1997: 305). PR systems, which are able to produce single-party governments, usually lead to the establishment of coalition governments unless one party wins a majority of votes (Norris, 1997: 308). Following a survey of twenty newly established democracies, only 10 percent of PR systems led to the establishment of single-party governments (Norris, 1997: 308). Consequently, this lowered government accountability (also referred to as government responsiveness) as the populations cannot leave a single party responsible for choices made. Majoritarian systems, alternatively, are more often than not single-party governments. The aforementioned study mentions 60 percent of majoritarian systems lead by single-party governments (Norris, 1997: 308). With this in mind, as well as the fact that the controlling party is the dominant party in parliament in a majoritarian system, the party possesses enough power to carry out unpopular choices; they need not rely on minority parties support (Norris, 1997: 304) . Furthermore, the domineering party would be held wholly accountable for their actions during their time in power, and following the end of their term would their performance be measured. At this time it would be decided whether or not to vote them out of power. In a majoritarian system, responsibility and power are viewed as one. In a majoritarian system, the power that gives the ruling party in government the ability to pass legislation and implement party policies increases the accountability of that party (Norris, 1997: 304). This gives rise to government effectiveness, and stability. Resultantly, fragmentation, which occasionally occurs in the PR system, is prevented. PR thus leads to instability in some cases (Norris, 1997: 305). This instability becomes clearer depending on the lifespan government tends to have; this occurrence is due to the majority of the masses not supporting the government, as apposed to the majoritarian system. It is when one considers social representation that one begins to see that a PR system is not necessarily more effective than the majoritarian system. By determining parliament seat rendering to the percentage of votes each party receives, the presence of smaller parties is ensured (Norris, 1997: 309).It is the fact that parties in a majoritarian system have support spread out in many areas that disadvantages the system despite overall greater support in the foundation (Norris, 1997: 305). This sees minority groupings excluded out of parliament as well as those groups experiencing lesser representation than warranted. After the end of the apartheid regime in South Africa, both the African National Congress and the National Party entered into negotiations in order to establish a democratic constitution that would allow for a swift transition; this realisation developed from a mutually hurting stalemate (Zartman, 1995: 147) that left neither side able to seize power by force (Zartman, 1995: 148). Due to South Africas diversity, which can be summarised as 79.4% Africans, 9.2 Whites, 8.8% Coloureds and 2.6% Asian/Indian (Statistics South Africa, 2010:4), social representation presented itself as a key concern during the transition into a stable democracy. Hendrik Verwoerd, who believed white men in Africa to not see peace and stability resulting from a satisfied nationalism (Verwoerd, 1960: 363), proposed no intermingling in the political sphere (Verwoerd, 1960: 364); this was the beginning of the oppression of many social groups, experiencing the domination of a nation ruled by one party. The adoptio n of the PR electoral system, which occurred following the amalgamation of the new democracy (Zartman, 1995: 45), would be to ensure the representation of all previously suppressed groups (Masiko-Kambala, 2008: 2). This system successfully maintained political stability despite having to reach a consensus while including various contradictory views. The PR system assured a diverse parliament, even though the system could not always ensure suitable accountability and stability (Norris, 1997: 305). Enforcing the majoritarian electoral system would have prolonged the aspect of Apartheid where certain groups were oppressed, the only difference is that the majoritarian system would oppress minority groups, whereas Apartheid oppressed South Africas racial majority. This would occur as parties would retain a majority in an area to gain a parliament seat, while the PR system presents any minority group the chance to win a seat (Norris, 1997: 303). Moving forward past a history of great viol ence and dissatisfaction amongst the populace, the PR system allowed an environment where all groupings were able to have their voice heard (Masiko-Kambala, 2008: 2); this would guarantee a great deal of support encouraging the new democratic government. Having discussed both electoral systems advantage and disadvantages with respect to each criteria with which to judge an electoral system in a new democracy, it can be concluded that each system is favourable in different instances. Where the PR system ensures a more diverse parliament, the majoritarian system is seen to generate greater responsibility and stability in government. It is purely a case of what a country views as the most important feature of governance at the time, and for South Africas case it would have been social representation, therefore ending in the implementation of a PR system; finding accountability or stability to be of more importance would have resulted in the establishment of the majoritarian system.

classical conditioning :: essays research papers

Applications Paper: The paper presented is aimed at demonstrating the primary principals behind classical conditioning. By using a real life example the textbook theory can be applied to a hypothetical patient suffering from a sleep disorder possibly somewhat brought on by a ‘learnt’ experience. My female friend expresses the symptoms of alertness and insomnia commonly prior to one specific action; brushing her teeth. The scenario given dictates that the only other time my friend brushes her teeth is prior to leaving for work in the morning and furthermore the text also highlights that her working life has relatively recently become more stressful. Atkinson (1980) brings in to play the fact that stress is quite likely to be the cause of the insomnia and alertness. By focusing specifically on Bond and McConkey’s (2001) theory: â€Å"†¦Classical conditioning can be defined as the pairing of some fixed temporal relationship of a neutral stimulus and a stimulus capable of regularly and reliably eliciting a response†¦Ã¢â‚¬  we can potentially see that the night time stressfulness could be as a result of her becoming classically conditioned. To understand exactly how my friend has learned to display characteristics of stress in the evenings, prior to sleep, we must familiarize ourselves with the basic principals of classical conditioning. There are four definitions, which must first be made clear; Wayne Written (2001) explains: 1)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) – A stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without prior conditioning. In this scenario specifically the UCS would be my friend leaving for work in the mornings. 2)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Unconditioned Response (UCR) – Is an unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning. In this case the response is quite obviously the stressful feeling my friend endures. Adopting Wayne Written’s (2001) description of our like – like scenario, so far Fig 1.1 below shows the relationship we have created. Without any learning-taking place the UCS of going to work has been associated with a conditioned response of feeling stressed. Fig 1.1 Wayne Written (2001) continues: 3)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Controlled Stimulus (CS) – Is a previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning acquired the capability a conditioned response. Again relating the CS to this example, we would be assuming that the brushing of her teeth would have been previously a neutral stimulus and hence forming the controlled stimulus for this argument. 4)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Controlled Response (CR) – Is a leant reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of prior conditioning. classical conditioning :: essays research papers Applications Paper: The paper presented is aimed at demonstrating the primary principals behind classical conditioning. By using a real life example the textbook theory can be applied to a hypothetical patient suffering from a sleep disorder possibly somewhat brought on by a ‘learnt’ experience. My female friend expresses the symptoms of alertness and insomnia commonly prior to one specific action; brushing her teeth. The scenario given dictates that the only other time my friend brushes her teeth is prior to leaving for work in the morning and furthermore the text also highlights that her working life has relatively recently become more stressful. Atkinson (1980) brings in to play the fact that stress is quite likely to be the cause of the insomnia and alertness. By focusing specifically on Bond and McConkey’s (2001) theory: â€Å"†¦Classical conditioning can be defined as the pairing of some fixed temporal relationship of a neutral stimulus and a stimulus capable of regularly and reliably eliciting a response†¦Ã¢â‚¬  we can potentially see that the night time stressfulness could be as a result of her becoming classically conditioned. To understand exactly how my friend has learned to display characteristics of stress in the evenings, prior to sleep, we must familiarize ourselves with the basic principals of classical conditioning. There are four definitions, which must first be made clear; Wayne Written (2001) explains: 1)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) – A stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without prior conditioning. In this scenario specifically the UCS would be my friend leaving for work in the mornings. 2)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Unconditioned Response (UCR) – Is an unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning. In this case the response is quite obviously the stressful feeling my friend endures. Adopting Wayne Written’s (2001) description of our like – like scenario, so far Fig 1.1 below shows the relationship we have created. Without any learning-taking place the UCS of going to work has been associated with a conditioned response of feeling stressed. Fig 1.1 Wayne Written (2001) continues: 3)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Controlled Stimulus (CS) – Is a previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning acquired the capability a conditioned response. Again relating the CS to this example, we would be assuming that the brushing of her teeth would have been previously a neutral stimulus and hence forming the controlled stimulus for this argument. 4)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Controlled Response (CR) – Is a leant reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of prior conditioning.

Developing Ecotourism

Developing Ecotourism: The Prospect of Bakkhali Group Project prepared under Rajiv Gandhi Chair Preface This project has been prepared under the aegis of Rajiv Gandhi Chair in Eco -systems & Sustainable Development under the supervision of Professor Sarmila Banerjee by the Masters level students in Economics with specialization in Resource & Environmental Economics of the University of Calcutta. Prof. Banerjee has initiated us to the issues related to economy-environment interface and convinced us about the importance of the notion of ecotourism to help the entire process keep going.We are extremely grateful to Professor Banerjee for her active interest and caring support all throughout. In this backdrop we tried to collate information on different aspects of Ecotourism from our field trip to Bakkhali, a small part of the Sundarban mangrove forest ecosystem of West Bengal. We enjoyed our venture in this newly travelled terrain of environmental economics and learnt to search for infor mation from the internet, write brief descriptions of the issues, prepare presentation slides and fina lly to give an integrated shape to the entire project.Finally, it has been the collective contribution of all the students of this course of the batch 2010-2012. Semester IV Resource and Environmental Economics M. Sc. (Economics) University of Calcutta June 8, 2012 ii Table of Contents No. Contents Preface Table of Contents Ecotourism 1. 1 Different forms of Tourism in India 1. 2 Future prospects of Tourism 1. 3 Impacts of tourism 1. 4 Promoting ecotourism in India 1. 5 The principles adopted by those involved in Ecotourism 1. 6 Why ecotourism? Page No. ii iii – iv 1-8 2. Ecosystem Approach 2. 1 Ecosystem and its Importance . 2 Ecosystem Approach 2. 3 Implementation of Ecosystem Approach 9 – 11 3. Valuing Biodiversity 3. 1 Why value Ecosystem? 3. 2 Motivation for an economic evaluation of ecosystem services 3. 3 Biodiversity 3. 4 Valuation of Biodiversity 3. 5 Biodive rsity Mapping 12 – 15 4. People’s Biodiversity Register (PBR) 4. 1 Objective of PBR formation 4. 2 Usefulness of PBR 4. 3 Information recorded in PBR 4. 4 Major ways of collecting data for PBR 4. 5 Interconnectedness in an Ecosystem 16 – 18 5. Sundarban – A Special Ecosystem 5. 1 Sundarban Eco – region: Introduction 5. 2Sundarban Freshwater Swamp Forests 5. 3 Sundarban Mangroves 5. 4 Sand – Dunes: Ecological Set – up 5. 5 Biodiversity of Sundarban 5. 6 Livelihood in Sundarban 5. 7 Utilization of Mangrove Resources Comprised 5. 8 Recent Developments & their Impacts 5. 9 Man-Animal Conflict 5. 10 Threats to Sundarban & Climatic Vulnerability 19 – 33 1. iii 6. Ecotourism in Bakkhali: A Fringe Part of Sundarban 6. 1 Bakkhali 6. 2 Accessibility 6. 3 Uniqueness 6. 4 Frasergunj, Henry Island & Jwambudwip 6. 5 Floral Diversity at Bakkhali & Henry Isand 6. 6 Faunal Diversity at Bakkhali & Henry Island . 7 Avian Diversity at Bakkhali & H enry Island 6. 8 Livelihood on Biodiversity 6. 9 Market Sharing 6. 10 Other Observations 6. 11 Threats from Tourism 6. 12 Our Suggestions iv 34 – 45 I. ECOTOURISM diversification to become one of the fastest growing economic sectors in the world. Tourism has become a thriving global indu stry with the power to shape developing countries in both positive and negative ways. Consequently, it is the fourth largest industry in the global economy and in India it contributes to a large proportion of the National Income – 6. 3% to the national GDP and 8. 78% of the total employment; thus generating huge employment opportunities (Wikipedia). 1. 1 Different forms of Tourism in India The Indian government, in order to boost tourism of various kinds in India, has set up the Ministry of Tourism and Culture. T his ministry recently launched a campaign called ‘I bl I !’ ff y f I .T trend is moving toward niche segments of tourism (as shown in figure 1 below). Figure 1: D ifferent Forms of Tourism in India 1. 2 Future prospects of TourismAccording to the latest Tourism Satellite Accounting (TSA) research, released by the World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) and its strategic partner Oxford Economics in March 2009: 1 ? The demand for travel and tourism in India is expected to grow by 8. 2 per cent between 2010 and 2019 and will place India at the third position in the world. ? India's travel and tourism sector is expected to be the second largest employer in the world. Considering the ever growing importance of this industry it is necessary we look for ways that will be sustainable in the long run. wikipedia) 1. 3 Impacts of tourism Positive Impacts 1. Generating Income and Employment: Tourism in India has emerged as an instrument of income and employment generation, poverty alleviation and sustainable human development. 2. Source of Foreign Exchange Earnings: Tourism is an important source of foreign exchange earnings in India. This has favourable impact on the balance of payment of the country. 3. Preservation of National Heritage and Environment: Tourism helps preserve several places which are of historical importance by declaring them as heritage sites.For instance, the Taj Mahal, the Qutab Minar, Ajanta and Ellora temples, etc, would have been decayed and dest royed had it not been for the efforts taken by Tourism Department to preserve them. Likewise, tourism also helps in conserving the natural habitats of many endangered species. 4. Developing Infrastructure: Tourism tends to encourage the development of mult ipleuse infrastructure that benefits the host community, including various means of transports, health care facilities, and sports centers, in addition to the hotels and high -end restaurants that cater to foreign visitors.The development of infrastructur e has in turn induced the development of other directly productive activities. 2 5. Promoting Peace and Stability: Honey and Gilpin (2009) suggests that the tou rism industry can also help promote peace and stability in developing country like India by providing jobs, generating income, diversifying the economy, protecting the environment, and promoting cross-cultural awareness. 6. Contributions to Government Revenues The Indian government through the tourism department also collect money in more far reaching and indirect ways that are not linked to specific parks or conservation areas.User fees, income taxes, taxes on sales or rental of recreation equipment, and license fees for activities such as rafting and fishing can provide governments with the funds ne eded to manage natural resources. Negative Impacts 1. Undesirable Social and Cultural Change: Tourism sometimes led to the destruction of the social fabric of a community. The more tourists come into a place, the more the perceived risk of that place losing its identity. 2. Increase Tension and Hostility: Tourism can increase tension, hostility, and suspicion between the tourists and t he local communities when there is no respect and f l y flf . T yf lead to violence and other crimes committed against the tourists. 3. Creating a Sense of Antipathy: Tourism brought little benefit to the local community. Moreover, large hotel chain restaurants often import food to satisfy foreign visitors and rarely emp loy local staff for senior management positions, preventing local farmers and workers from reaping the benefit of their presence. This has often created a sense of antipathy towards the tourists and the government. 4.Adverse Effects on Environment and Eco logy: One of the most important adverse effects of tourism on the environment is increased pressure on the carrying capacity of the ecosystem in each tourist locality. Increased transport and construction activities led to large scale deforestation and destabilisation of natural landforms, while increased 3 tourist flow led to increase in solid waste dumping as well as depletion of water and fuel resources. Flow of tourists to ecologically sensitive areas resulted in destruction of rare and endangered species due to trampling, killing, disturbance of breeding habitats.Noise pollution from vehicles and public address systems, water pollution, vehicular emissions, untreated sewage, etc. also have direct effects on bio -diversity, ambient environment and general profile of tourist spots. 5. Depletion of natural resources: Tourism development can put pressure on natural resources when it increases consumption in areas where resources are already scarce. 6. Destruction and Alteration of Ecosystem: Attractive landscape sites, such as sandy beaches in Goa, Maharashtra, Kerala, Tamil Nadu; lakes, riversides, and mountain tops and slopes, are often transitional zones, characterized by species-rich ecosystems.The threats to and pressures on these ecosystems are often severe because such places are very attractive to both tourists and developers. Examples may be cited from Krushedei Island near Rameswar am. Moreover, habitat can be degraded by tourism leisure activities. For example, wildlife viewing can bring about stress for the animals and alter their natural behaviour when tourists come too close. Safaris and wildlife watching activities have a degrading effect on habitat as they often are accompanied by the noise and commotion created by tourists. Figure 2 shows the same impacts classified under many other categories.Thus, the value of the very environmental and socio cultural assets that attract travellers can erode over time. This is particularly the case where tourism development is unregulated, blinkered by volume growth, and focused only on short -term economic benefits. This is â€Å"unsustainable† and â€Å"irresponsible† and completely unacceptable in the 21st century. Tourism in India should be developed in such a way that it accommodates and entertains visitors in a way that is minimally intrusive or destructive to the environment and sustains & support s the native cultures in the locations it is operating in.Moreover, since tourism is a multi-dimensional activity, and basically a service industry, 4 Figure 2: Classification of Impacts of Tourism it would be necessary that all wings of the Central and State governments, private sector and voluntary organisations become active partners in the endeavour to attain sustainable growth in tourism if India is to become a world player in the tourism industry. Also, Eco tourism needs to be promoted so that tourism in India helps in preserving and sustaining the diversity of the India's natural and cultural environments. It can simply be summarized as shown in picture 1. 1. 1Promoting ecotourism in India Fundamentally, eco-tourism means making as little environmental impact as possible and helping to sustain the indigenous populace, thereby encouraging the preservation of wildlife and habitats when visiting a place. This is the respons ible form of tourism and tourism development, which enc ourages going back to natural products in every aspect of life. It is also the key to sustainable ecological development. The International Eco tourism Society defines eco-tourism as â€Å"responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the well-being of local people. † ( wikipedia) Pictue 1: Eco-tourism – simply described The key players in the ecotourism business are governments at levels, the local authorities, the developers and the operators, the visitors, and the local community. Each one of them has to be sensitive to the environment and local traditions and follow a set of guidelines for the successful development of ecotourism. 1. 2 Principles adopted in Ecotourism The principles that are adopted by those who are involved in Eco -tourism can be listed as shown below: ? To minimize the negative impacts on environment. ? To build environmental and cultural awareness and respect ?To provide positive experienc es for both visitors a nd hosts ? To provide direct financial benefits for conservation ? To provide financial benefits a nd empowerment for local people ? To raise sensitivity to host countries' political, en vironmental, and social climate ? To support international human rights (www. ecotourism. org/what-is-ecotourism) 6 and labour agreements Scientific and research institutions and non-government organisations can also play some roles in promoting ecotourism: (i) Create awareness, among all concerned, about the importance of sound eco -practices in tourism development; ii) Motivate the local communit ies to increase their involvement in sustainable tourism activities; (iii) Organise training programs to prepare the local people to take up various vocations related to ecotourism (www. ecotourism. org/what-is-ecotourism) All these principles are summed up in figure 3, where their linkage is also shown with the arrow-heads. 6. Emphasizes the need for planning and sustainable growth of the tourism industr y 1. Avoid negative impacts on natural & cultural environment 2. Educates the traveller on the importance of conservation PRINCIPLES OF ECOTOURISM 5.Stressing the use of locallyowned facilities and services. 3. Directs revenues to the conservation of natural areas and the management of protected areas 4. Brings economic benefits to local communities Figure 3: Principles of Eco -tourism 1. 3 Why ecotourism? Most wilderness areas across India are fragile ecosystems that provide a whole host of ecosystem ser vices to local residents and people living downstream; and continue to remain important tourist attractions. However, unplanned tourism in such landscapes can destroy the very environment that attracts such tourism in the first place.Hence, there is a need to move towards a model of tourism that is compatible with these fragile landscapes. Such tourism is low impact, educational, and conserves the environment while directly benefiting the economic development of local communities. It has the 7 scope to link to a wider constituency and build conservation support while raising awareness about the worth and fragility of such ecosystems in the public at large. It also promotes the non-consumptive use of wilderness areas, for the benefit of local communities living around, and dependent on these fragile landscapes.Thus, tourism can be developed along with the conservation of the ecosystem. 8 II. ECOSYSTEM APPROACH 2. 1 Ecosystem and its importance Ecosystem is a dynamic complex of plants, animals & micro-organism communities & the non-living environment interacting as a functional unit. And it is this interconnectedness that forms the striking feature of such a system. Healthy ecosystems are essential for human well-being, as they provide inva luable functions and services including sustaining living resources. The health of ecosystems is therefore not only essential to the environment, but also important to the existence and l y. T b f â€Å"E y A †. 2. 2 Ecosystem Approach Ecosystem approach is basically a strategy for the integrated management of land, water and living resources that promotes not only conservation but also sustainable use in an equitable way. It is based on the application o f appropriate scientific methodologies focused on levels of biological organization, which encompass the essential structure, processes, functions and interactions among organisms and their environment. It recognizes that humans, with their cultural diver sity, are an integral component of many ecosystems.However, till date, it has not been possible to identify any particular form of this approach. Ecosystem approach is based on some principles which consider the economy to be anthropocentric. And since ecosystem is a rich resource for human society, the integrated management of the biotic and abiotic components must ensure sustained use so as to secure it for future generations. These principles state that the objectives of management of land, water and living resources are a matter of societal choice and management should be decentralized to the lowest appropriate level.This approach should be undertaken at the appropriate spatial and temporal scale because time and spatial dimensions are equally important. This approach should also consider all forms of relevant information including scientific, traditional and local knowledge, innovative 9 practices and most importantly, it should be open to changes. Finally, this should involve all relevant sectors of so ciety and scientific discipline s. 2. 3 Implementation of Ecosystem Approach The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) identifies three steps for the implementation of ecosystem approach.These steps are in accordance with the above mentioned principles (Figure 4). Let us describe these steps in more detail. Figure 4: Major Steps for Implementation of Ecosystem Approach (Adapted from R. Costanza et al. â€Å"The value of the Worl d’s ecosystem Services and Natural Capital†, Nature vol. 387(1997) Step A It deals with the most difficult issues of defining an ecosystem area; identifying th e stakeholders and developing a relation between the two. It is best to work simultaneously on defining the ecosystem area and determining the stakeholders who will support the selection and management of that area.Whether we start with area or with stake holders, 10 it will take substantial time and effort to achieve a workable fit. Howover, this step qualifies as the most important step because a proper management of the ecosystem by the stakeholders and a mutually beneficial relationship between the two can not only bring desirable results but also ensure harmonious coexistence. On the other hand, an improper management might lead to exploitation due to overuse and significant endangering of the ecosystem, disrupting its sustainability for future generations . Step BThis stage involves characterizing the struc ture and function of the ecosystem, and setting in place mechanisms to manage and monitor it. The most productive way involves scientists and local inhabitants working together , as the traditional and scientific knowledge are likely to be complementary, though different. Step C Step C essentially deals with reducing market induced distortions on ecosystem. Valuation in case of environmental good has always been a problem since these are non marketed goods. Hence market distortion should be corrected at an early stage.Here we may apply the concept of derived market to arrive at a proper valuation using correct market instruments-Mekong river basin case study showed overvaluation of dam and irrigation schemes. This should be corrected using best possible knowledge. The interlink age between the components should be properly identified while making the cost benefit analysis. Care should be taken to avoid over extraction of resources. Proper incentive should be created among the people for wise use of biodiversity. One may bring political will in necessary issues. 11 III. VALUING BIODIVERSITY 3. 1 Why to value Ecosystem?The services of ecological systems and the natural capital stocks that produce them l f f E ’ l f -support system. They contribute to human welfare, both directly and indirectly, and therefore represent part of the total economic value of the planet. For the entire biosphere, ,the current economic value of 17 ecosystem services for 16 biomes, based on published studies and a few original calculations, is estimated to be in the range of US$16–54 trillion per year, with an average of US$33 trillion per year. Because of the nature of uncertainties, this must be considered as a minimum estimate.Global gross national product total is around US$18 trillion per year. For example, the average forest benefit in the Med region amounts to about 1% of GDP. Indirect use value such as water-shed protection, contributes about 35% of total estimated value. ( Source: Adapted from R. Costanza et al. â€Å"T l f W l’ y S N lC l† N l. 387(1997)p. 256 table 2) 3. 2 Motivation for an economic evaluation of ecosystem services ? Ecosystems provide a wide array of goods and services of value to people. ? Provision of ecosystems services often is not factored into import ant decisions that affect ecosystems.Distortions in decision –making damage the provision of ecosystems services making human society and the environment poorer. (Valuing Ecosystem services—advantages & disadvantages of existing methodologies and application to PES by Daniel Perrot Maitre (Seminar on environment services and financing for the protection and sustainable use of ecosystem Geneva,10-11 October 2005;IUCN ) 3. 3 Biodiversity Variation in the living part of ecology is called â€Å"biological diversity† or â€Å"biodiversity†. This term is most commonly used to replace the more clearly defined and long established terms , species diversity and species richness.Biologists most often define 12 biodiversity as the â€Å"totality of genes, species, and ecosystems of a region†. An advantage of this definition is that it seems to describe most circumstances and presents a unified view of the traditional three levels at which biological variety has been identified . (www. portal. gsi. gov. in/) There are three forms of biodiversity: Ecosystem diversity: It refers to the diversity of a place at the level of ecosystems ; the variety of species and ecological processes that occur in different physical settings.Species diversity: It is the effective number of different species that are represented in a collection of individuals (a dataset). Genetic diversity: It refers to the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a species (www. portal. gsi. gov. in/) Biodiversity is indeed a major contributor to the economy through the provision of many ecosystem goods and services. It is in trinsic to the values of beauty and tranquillity. Many Australians place a high value on native plants and animals, which contribute to a sense of cultural identity, spiritual enrichment and recreation.In fact, biodiversity is central to the cultures of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. There is also a link between biodiversity and livelihood. This is because a person's livelihood refers to â€Å"means of securing the necessities of life†. Th is extends to include social and cultural means, i. e. â€Å"the command an individual, family, or other social group has over an income and/or bundles of resources that can be used or exchanged to satisfy its needs. † For instance a fisherman's livelihood depends on the availability and accessibility of the diversity of fish.Therefore valuation of biodiversity is very important in our daily life. (www. portal. gsi. gov. in/) 3. 4 Valuation of Biodiversity The Value of Biodiversity (Figure 5) Includes both Use Values and Non-Use Values:? Use values include direct use (both consumptive and non-consumptive), indirect use, and option values 13 Direct-use Values: Hunting, direct -consumption (e. g. collection of berries, mushrooms, b l ll â€Å" ) ll â€Å" †; b y tourism †. – Indirect-use Values: Ecosystem services such as pollination, habitat for other species, sustaining food chains, and other uses are indirect -use values. Non-use values include bequest values and existence values (http://www. biospherenursery. com/pages/whatisabioscape. html ) Value of Biodiversity Present use value-market based Future use value-option value Direct use value -conscious Existenceexistence value Non use value -ignorant? Figure 5: Fragmented Value of Biodiversity 3. 5 Biodiversity Mapping Biodiversity mapping denotes the link between biodiversity and human diversity. It is recognizes the role- played by human diversity in biodiversity conservation.Cultural biodiversity also exists in towns as people use traditional medicines, eat traditional food, wear traditional cloth and can also have an intricate knowledge on culture and biodiversity. Categories of Biodiversity Mapping Bioscape: The term Bioscape f â€Å"l ff b lz l †; including human habitat (http://www. biospherenursery. com/pages/whatisabioscape. html). Landscape: Landscape ecology is described as a science that examines the appearance and patterns of land as a result of the interactions with its ecosystems. The relatively new 14 iscipline of landscape ecology provides insight into both landscape diversity and species diversity and suggests a theoretical and practical basis for conservation planning . Timescape: Timescape is the change in pattern over time. It documents landscape pattern, occurrence and exploitation of biological diversity and the dependence of community on the natural resources. IV. PEOPLE’S BIODIVERSITY REGISTER (PBR) P l’ B yR (PBR) is a documented register containing compr ehensive information on the availability and knowledge of the local biological resource, their use and traditional folklore associated with them.It is one of the significant steps for conservation of biodiversity through sustainable management using indigenous knowledge. 4. 1 Objectives of PBR formation ? To claim justified benefit sharing by the local people for any commercial use of their BD resources. ? To explore enterprises based on their BD resources ? To develop exhaustive data base to help effective intervention for development & conservation Along with this information, the Register will also contain extensive annotations on the landscape of the area, present land use pattern, and some over timescape. 4. 2 Usefulness of PBR Preparation of Biodiversity Register is an attempt to realize the bio diversity at Local Self Government level, States and the whole Country. ? This will also provide information on the current utilization patterns of biodiversity, its economic benefits to the local communities. 4. 3 Information recorded in PBR 15 The information contained in PBR is not only confined to a list of species available in an area but a comprehensive report on the species, their habit, biological produce, their associated market price, harvesting & transport of the produce, regulation on harvesting, technology, l’ y f ocal level management, landscape related data, over a time span and so on. These information are being documented under landscape, lifescape, peoplescape, and t imescape. Thus, f l’ biodiversity register includes: ? knowledge of local biological resources, their traditional knowledge associated with them, ? data about the local aid & practitioner uses of biological resources, ? details about biological resources & knowledge. 4. 4 Major ways of Collecting Data for PBR ? Interviews of individual ? Group interviews ? Few observation by volunteers and technical support group ? Existing official document 4. Interconnectedness in an Ecosystem 5. PAYMENTECOSYSTEM SERVICES 4. ECOSYSTEM SERVICES 1. BIODIVERSITY ECOSYSTEM 3. LIVELIHOOD DEPENDENCE 2. ECO-TOURISM Figure 6: Interconnectedness in a Ecosystem 16 Humans are now most concerned with the exploitation and preservation of the biotic constituents for commercial harvest and recreation. To achieve these goals, we must be aware of the interconnectedness of the ecosystem which exhibits not only the characteristics of its components, but also characteristics of its own which arise from combinations and interactions of the components (as shown in figure 6).The interconnected mesh can be more clearly explained as: b iodiversity is the living part of ecosystem – with biodiversit y eco-tourism can be developed – eco (tourism) is a major source of livelihood – ecosystem also provides various kinds of services correspond to livelihood and biodiversity – thus payment for ecosystem services – this in turn can help in preserving the biodi versity. 17 V. SUNDARBAN – A Special Ecosystem Map 1: Sundarban Eco-region 5. 1 Sundarban Eco-region: IntroductionThe Sundarban Delta Complex (map 1), having geo-genetic link to the tectonic Bengal Basin, geographically extends over the eastern India (40%) and Bangladesh (60%). It is characterized by prolific growth of rich and diversified mangrove vegetation and forms an integral down drift coastal part of the Bengal Delta Complex that overlies huge thickness of Tertiary marine sediments of the actively subsiding Bengal Basin. It is a cluster of 102 miracle islands, form the largest mangrove delta complex on the globe in 18 he estuarine phase of the Ganges and Brahmaputra Rivers, and constitute a unique Biosphere Reserve in the coastal Bay of Bengal. The deltaic complex was declared a reserved forest in 1875-76, under the Forest Act, 1865. A Forest Division was created in 1879 with headquarters in Khulna. The Reserve Forest has been nominated for recognition as a Ramsar Site (A Wetland of International Importance). (www. portal. gsi. gov. in/) â€Å"Sundarban† literally means â€Å"beautiful jungle or forest† in Bengali language. The name Sundarbans may also have been derived from the Sundari trees (dominant species) that are omnipresent in this region.This is a region of transition of fresh Ganga water and saline water of Bay of Bengal. Sundarban ecoregion features two characters — forest ecosystem and sand dunes. The forest ecosystem can again be divided into two clusters: freshwater swamp forests and mangroves. 5. 2 Sundarban freshwater swamp forests The Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests lay between the upland lower Gangetic plains moist deciduous forests and the brackish-water Sundarban mangroves bordering the Bay of Bengal. These are tropical a nd subtropical moist broad-leafed brackish swamp forests.The fertile soils of the delta have been subject to intensive human use for centuries, and the eco-region has been mostly conv erted to intensive agriculture, with few enclaves of forest remaining. This eco-region is nearly extinct due to large-scale deforestation and settlement by human. 5. 3 Sundarban Mangroves Mangrove forest (picture 2) is a woody community that can be periodically submerged in sea water of the inter-tidal zone of tropical regions . They are the second highest source of primary production next to rainforests. They produce high detritus and release nutrients which are a food source of variety of organism.Mangroves provide homes to variety of marine and terrestrial organisms. They act as nurseries and feeding grounds for many fish, shrimp and crustaceans and non-resident fish enter the mangroves to feed at high . M l y 19 f fb ’ . They not only provide a wealth of b yb l f l’ food web. As with most ecosystems, an intricate relationship exists between mankind and mangrove. Many indigenous costal residents rely on mangroves to sustain their traditional cutlass. They have been sustainably used for food production, medicines, fuel wood, and fishery and construction materials.They are important inter tidal estuarine wetlands along the coast line of tropical and sub-tropical region; are exposed to autersopogenic contamination fro m tidal water, river water and land based sources and Sundarban mangrove ecosystem being no exception. Picture 2: Trees of Sundarban Mangrove Special Feature of Mangrove Ecosystem 1. Adaptations to low oxygen : Red mangroves, which can survive in the most inundated areas, prop themselves above the water level with stilt roots and can then absorb air through pores in their bark (lenticels).Black mangroves live on higher ground and make many pneumatophores (specialised root -like structures which stick up out of the soil like straws for breathing) which are also covered in lenticels. These â€Å"breathing tubes† typically reach heights up to thirty centimeters, and in some species, over three meters. There are four types of pne umatophore — stilt or prop type, snorkel or peg type, knee type, and ribbon or plank type. Knee and ribbon types may be combined with buttress roots at the base of the tree. The roots also contain wide aerenchyma to facilitate transport within the plant. 2.Limiting water loss: Because of the limit ed fresh water available in salty intertidal soils, mangroves limit the amount of water they lose through their leaves. They 20 can restrict the opening of their stomata (pores on the leaf surfaces, which exchange carbon dioxide gas and water vapour during photosynthesis). They also vary the orientation of their leaves to avoid the harsh midday sun and so reduce evaporation from the leaves. Anthony Calfo, a noted aquarium author, observed anecdotally a red mangrove in captivity only grows if its leaves are mis ted with fresh water several times a week, simulating the frequent tropical rainstorms. . Nutrient uptake: The biggest problem that mangroves face is nutrient uptake. Because the soil is perpetually waterlogged, there is little free oxygen. Anaerobic bacteria liberate nitrogen gas, soluble iron, inorganic phosphates, sulfides, and methane, which makes the soil much less nutritious. Pnuematophores (aerial roots) allow mangroves to absorb gases directly from the atmosphere, and other nutrients such as iron, fro m the inhospitable soil. Mangroves store gases directly inside the roots, processing them even when the roots are submerged during high tide. Evolution of MangrovesFrom low tidal mudflat via high tidal mudflat with mangroves to shrimp pond, sandy silt content is lightly increasing. The content of macro elements and minerals is almost unchanged after depth as results of fairly stable, sedimentary source chronologically. Geochemical sedimentary evo lution is visually reflected in the regularly changing in geochemical indices, the content of nutrients and heavy metals. Mangroves often take shape in high tidal mudflat of estuaries, in where, sedimentary environment with fine grain is favourable for mangrove seeds to be stored, spring up and photosynthesiz e.In return, the formation and development of mangrove forests, as a sedimentary trap, make the sedimentary environment more favourable for depositing of fine grain sediments rich in clay minerals. Sedimentary deposition rate in mangrove forest tends to be higher than in Thus, these processes are natural companion of the environmental transform from low tidal mudflat without mangroves (permanently being under water) into high tidal mudflat covered with mangroves (alternatively being under water). The evolution is depicted in the figure 7 below. 21 Figure 7: Evolution of MangrovesThe transform of low tidal mudflat without mangroves into high tidal mudflat is characterized by a little increase in content of Fepyrite, Statal, Spyrite, Sreduction. The raising in amount of sulphurs can be understood as consequence of higher amount of mangrove root, which is the main sulphur source. Th e content of sulphurs increase after sedimentary depth in low tidal mudflat is more intensively than that in high tidal mudflat. This may also relate to increasing sulphur source in tidal mudflat. In addition, var iation coefficients of sulphurs content in mangrove forest sediment are higher than those in low tidal mudflat.Thus, the transform process through these two environments leads to stronger sulphurs differentiation. Under the right conditions like the formation of a mud -flat, growth of mangroves is initiated. Stabilization of mud-flats is a preliminary process in the establishment of mangroves. Pioneer plant species initiate this process. The roots of these plants help in binding the soil and also help the establishment of micro -organisms which further help in stabilizing the area. Stabilization starts from the land side and gradually shifts towards the sea.The pioneer plants are spec ies like Porterasia coarctata and some members of the Cyprus family. These are slowly rep laced by other mangrove plants and then these mangroves gradually spread towards the sea. Once mangroves grow, the submerged banks are fully stabilized. Then the plant s slowly reach a stage which is called the climax vegetation. A climax vegetation of mangroves is represented by the complete circle of life where there are different species of plants, animals (both terrestrial and aquatic) and micro -organisms forming an ecosystem called the tropical salt marsh or the mangrove ecosystem.In case the sediments are not 22 stabilized, submerged banks are washed out. Thousands of deltas are formed and washed out every year before they can be stabilized. In the Gangetic delta this situation is quite common. Zonation in mangrove 1. Proximal Zone (Front mangroves): This zone is towards water front, subject to regular tidal effect where intensity of soil accumulation and inundation is a continuous process. The mangrove species in this zone are specially adapted with stilt roots, prop roots f or stability and anchorage. Main species with these features are Rhizophora apiculata and Rhizophora mucronata.On rocky and coral reef substrata, Avicennia Spp, Sonneratia Caseolaris are also found. Both Avicennia and Sonneratia produce pneumatophores. 2. Middle Zones (Mid mangroves): Above the Rhizophora/ Avicennia line luxuriant group of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, B. Cylindrica, Lumnitzera racemosa, L. littoralis, Ceriops tagal and Aegiceras corniculatum occur. Ceriops and Bruguiera develop a strong hold fast in the form of knee roots or bent roots as a special adoption for supporting the erect bole. 3. Distal Zone (Back mangroves): Towards island area mangroves like Excoecaris agallocha, Heritiera littoralis and Xylocarnus spp occur.Both Heritiera and Xylocarpus produce buttresses. Generally the salinity is on lower side in this zone occurring towards hill sides where run off of fresh water is for a prolonged period. The duration of tidal submersion is low in this zone compared to fr ont mangroves. However, the zonation in mangroves is not so simple and varies from place to place. Every species has its own level of salinity tolerance. Estuaries on east coast show distinct zonation. The high salinity range on the east coast estuaries may be the principal reason for distinct zonation there.The range and force of tidal action also play a determinant role in creation and maintenance of zones as distribution of seeds or propagules is influenced by tidal action. Also, tides do influence the salinity in an estuary. Land Formation in mangrove ecosystem 23 During high tide silts take a way into the creeks. And when low tide starts the water recedes but the silts are deposited. This is the natural way of sedimenta tion. In this way the land is formed in mangrove ecosystem (figure 8 (a)). But the newly formed land is fragile in nature. Additionally the seeds of mangroves fall on this area and there they grow up.The roots of mangrove with its special characteristics hold up the soil. This prevents soil erosion and holds up the land. And the settlement grows around that. This is used for cultivation also. When embankment is built artificially to cultivate and to protect the land from being flooded the natural process o f land formation is hampered. Silt deposition does not take place. Also the mangroves which used to be there die down. The land becomes more fragile and during high tide or during flood the water table increases more than it would previously. The purpose of embankment fails here.It hampers the natural land formation and also destroys the mangrove ecosystem (figure 8 (b)). (a) (b) Figure 8: (a) Natural Land Formation and (b) Land Formation Due To Embankment in Mangrove Ecosystem 5. 4 Sand-Dunes: Ecological set-up At the most basic level dunes are simply piles of sand. Wind and waves transport sand onto the beach forming dunes. It results from stabilization of transported sediment, sea weed, debris by vegetation. It is also related to tida l fluctuation. Further accretion results in beach elevation. Migrating dunes helps to keep habitation being exposed to sea.Dune ridges are formed by surface wind w ith velocity more than 4. 5 m/s when sand sized 24 particles move by siltation. Travelling dunes bury areas in eroding coast. In stable coast dunes stabilize 90o to wind direction. Sand tends to be blown from the windward face and to accumulate on the leeward side. Dunes (picture 3) are found in Sundarban ecosystem which help protects mangroves. Tidal flow causes the formation of the mangrove and the formation of the sand dunes is caused by the wind flows. Thus tidal flow and wind flow works together in Sundarbans and creates the special features of this region, i. . , mangroves and sand dunes which lead to the formation of the beach. The beach here is rich in biodiversity and Sundarban is developing a very good kind of beach-centric ecotourism. Picture 3: Sand-dunes of Sundarban Eco-system 5. 5 Biodiversity of Sundarban A brief account of the floral and faunal diversity in Sundarban is shown in the picture 4 below. Some common mangrove species can be jotted down as: ? Hatal(Phoenix paludosa) ? Genwa (Excoecaria agallocha) ? Dhundul(Xylocarpus granatum) ? Kankra (Bruguirea gymnorrhiza) ? Champa(Bruguiera parviflora) ? Dhani ghas (Porteresia coarctata) Garjan (Rhizophora apiculata) ? Keora (Sonneratia apelata) ? Sundari tree (Heritiera fomes) ? Golpati( Nypa frutcans) (www. portal. gsi. gov. in/) 25 There are also many faunal species in this region: (www. portal. gsi. gov. in/) BENGALTIGER (Panthera tigris tigris): At present there are about 250-300 tigers in Sundarban. This is the nominate species of the eight sub-species of tigers found in the world. Tigers are the apex predat ors of this mangrove eco -system. They are right at the top of the food chain. The Sundarban t igers are extraordinary beasts.Perfectly at home both on land and water, it is known to cross more than one river at time to find food. The Sundarban tiger preys mainly on cheetal or spotted deer, wild boar, goats and livestock. It is a nocturnal and ambush predator. Picture 4: Sundarban Ecosystem Biodiversity JUNGLE CAT (Felis chaus): This is a stout bodied cat found in Sundarbans. It is a nocturnal animal which preys on small animals. This cat is often met with in Sundarbans. It is a good climber and an ambush predator. LEOPARD CAT (Felis bengalensis): This cat is an agile climber and a good swimmer. It preys on birds, bats, hares and fawns.FISHING CAT (Prionailurus viverrina): This is a powerfully built cat. It is a nocturnal predator and an expert swimmer. It is known to dive in water to catch fish hence the 26 name. It also preys on small and medium size animals such as wild pigs and cheetal fawns. WILD BOAR (Sus scrofa): This animal is often seen in Sundarbans. This is a heavily built animal. It is basically a herbivore but is also known to take small animals, insects and even carrion. This animal also a cts as a prey species for the tiger. CHEETAL OR SPOTTED DEER (Axis axis): This is the only deer found in Sundarban.It is also the most common deer in India. It is a herbivore. This animal is the major prey for the tigers. It is commonly seen near water holes. COMMON KRAIT (Bungarus caeruleus): This is the most venomous snake in India. This is strictly nocturnal snake. It feeds mainly on snakes. BLACK CAPPED KINGFISHER (Halcyon pileata): This is a common bird of the Sundarbans. Seen frequently on river banks. It feeds mainly on fish and crabs. GOLIATH HERON (Ardea goliath): This common bird of Sundarbans is huge in appearance. It is a solitary creature. It feeds mainly on fish and frogs.LESSER ADJUTANT STORK (Leptoptilos javanicus): Normally solitary. Feeds on fish, frogs and reptiles. BRAMHINY KITE (Haliastur indus): This is a raptor which is often found besides water bodies such as lakes, pools, ponds and rivers. It feeds on fish, frogs, snakes, small mammals and bats. In addition to this Sundarban has few species of sharks the most common being the INDIAN DOG SHARK (Scoliodon laticaudus): There are also dolphins to be found in Sundarbans the most common being the Gangetic dolphin (Platinista gangetica) to name a few. COMMON KRAIT (Bungarus caeruleus): This is the most venomous snake in India.This is strictly nocturnal snake. It feeds mainly on snakes. 27 BLACK CAPPED KINGFISHER (Halcyon pileata): This is a common bird of the Sundarbans. Seen frequently on river banks. It feeds mainly on fish and crabs. GOLIATH HERON (Ardea goliath): This common bird of Sundarbans is huge in appearance. It is a solitary creature. It feeds mainly on fish and frogs. LESSER ADJUTANT STORK (Leptoptilos javanicus): Normally solitary. Feeds on fish, frogs and reptiles. BRAMHINY KITE (Haliastur indus): This is a raptor which is often found besides water bodies such as lakes, pools, ponds and rivers.It feeds on fish, frogs, snakes, small mammals and bats. INDIAN DOG SHARK (Scoliodon laticaudus). There are also dolphins to be found in Sundarbans the most common being the Gangetic dolphin (Platinista gangetica) to name a few. 5. 6 Livelihood in Sundarban Agriculture is the main occupation of the local people. Rain-fed, mono-cro â€Å" † paddy is grown in t his area. Before the introduction of HYVs, they cultivated salt tolerant varieties of rice like Paknai, Barhal, Talmugur, Gopalbhog, Gulshi, Bolan etc. Occasional inundation of paddy fields by brackish water gave rise to a paddy-cum-fishery system.During agricultural lean period, locals get involved in fishing, honey collection. 49% of the households directly extracted forest resources for their livelihood, including 98 % of the landless forest fishers. Almost all remaining households depended partly on the forest resources. The forest fishers, traders and some of the labourers directly depended on forest resources, earning money from either selling or processing these resources. Most of the farmers and service holders depended on forest resources indirectly because they used forest resources for their households (for food, fuelwood, building materials etc).It was a clear trend that the higher the household income, the higher the dependency on forest resources. Main livelihood percent of households: Fishery-32, Farming-25, Labour-15, Trade-13, Service-5, Other-10. Some livelihood forms are shown in picture 5. 28 C Picture 5: Some Livelihood Forms in Sundarban 5. 7 Utilization of mangrove resources comprised †¢F :F †¢F l †¢ F y ll †¢B l y b .; from various trees; ; l :G l ( y l) b . There are some medicinal plants in the mangroves, but t hese are not utilized. Most of the households depended entirely on fu el wood for cooking.This demand causes rapid depletion of forest and consequently the ecosystem, as well as air pollution and health problems. Once upon a time logging was practiced in felling mode, but now in selective mode. When carried out in felling mode, t he result can be er osion of the exposed ground and impoverishment of the soil within the affected area. In se lective mode, as carried out at present, the removal of many valuable species can still damage the ecosystem, and in this mode, the space of the removed individual tr ees may be taken by other, less valuable, species. In either case, the forest resources become less valuable.Fish is the potential source of protein of the people of Bangladesh. Many people of the Sundarban households totally depend on fishing, usually by nets that are very effective but catch all fishes. Sometimes po isoning is applied, with severe environmental impacts. Tourists can enjoy the sight of fishing by trained otters. Shrimp cultivation is profitable business, and is totally dependent on natural fry. People collect fry from the river by nets of small mesh, with severe consequences to a multitude of other species. 5. 8 Recent Developments and their impacts 29Recent introduction of HYV seeds has led to increased dependence on chemical fertilizers, pesticides & external sources of seeds dominated by corporate sector. M f HYV’ b f f. Occurrence of recent cyclones made them realise the need for preservation & cultivation of indigenous species. Lack of alternate emplo yment opportunities, loss of land, population pressure & poverty increases the dependence on forest for timber & Non-Timber Forest Produces (NTFPs). Destructive capture method of tiger prawn culture has replaced the traditional aquaculture in paddy fields. Corporate sector is making money, Meendharas are being employed.Over 1000 juveniles of other fish species are destroyed to catch a single tiger prawn seedling (DISHA, 2006). W f l b b ’l l b en subjected to uncertainty. What they could obtain for their livelihood from the forest easily, is now restricted. This poses a difficulty for their subsistence. So they get involved in illegal cutting which adversely affect the ecosystem. 5. 9 Man-animal Conflict Local people in Sundarban are immensely dependent on the forest for their day to day activities and also for their living. Honey collectors, wood cutters, leaf collectors and fishermen are sometimes killed by tiger inside the forest.Sundarban tig er treats human as a normal prey in forest. Every village in fringes have large number of widows of tiger . T f y ‘B b b ’ (picture 6) ‘D k y’ irrespective of all religions. To reduce potential tiger attack, t hey experiment with Human Masks (picture 7) at the back of their head. 30 Picture 6: Bonbibi Picture 7: Human Masks 5. 10 Threats to Sundarban and climatic vulnerability ? Recurrent coastal flooding (picture 8) due to climate change (global warming) causes changes in sea level (rise in sea level). 26 Picture 8: Effects of Coastal Flooding Reduced flow of sweet water into Sundarban mangrove system. ? Extension of non-forestry land use into mangrove forest. ? The Barrier: a) Man-animal conflict: Straying of ti gers into villages. b) Human-human conflict: Villagers Vs. foresters. ? Population pressure and increased demand for small timber and fuel wood for local consumption. ? Poaching of tiger, spotted deer, wild boar, marine ? Uncontrolled collection of prawn seedlings. ? Uncontrolled fishing in the water of Reserve forests. 31 turtles, horse-shoe crab etc. ? Continuous trampling of river/creek banks by fishermen and prawn seed collectors. Chemical pollution through marine paints and hydrocarbons & also agricultural run-off containing chemical fertilizers & pesticides. ? Lack of employment opportunities in the forest fringe areas, locals moving to adjacent states for jobs, girl trafficking. ? Organizational and infrastructural deficiencies lead to corporate extortion in agriculture & aquaculture. ? Tourism can be viewed as one such threat to the ecosystem. Tourism has its negative impacts on the ecosystem which are pressure on carrying capacity of the ecosystem which may sometime leads t o deforestation & destruction of endangered species.Environmental pollution & depletion of natural resources are seen almost everywhere with more tourist visit. 32 VI. ECOTOURISM at BAKKHALI: A fringe part of Sundarban 6. 1 Bakkhali Bakkhali is a coastal area in South 24 Parganas district of West Bengal, India (map 2). It is located on one of the many deltaic islands spread across southern Bengal. This small island juts out into the vast expanse of the Bay o f Bengal. It has a 7 k m long beach stretching from Bakkhali to Frasergunj, a twin beach with gently rolling waves. Casuarina trees line up the beach like guarding wall, which adds up to the beauty of the beach. wikipedia) 6. 2 Accessibility By road Map 2: Bakkhali, a small part of South-West West Bengal It is 125 km by road from Joka tram terminus. The road runs through Diamond Harbour and Kakdwip to Namkhana, where the car o r bus has to be transported across the Hatania-Doania creek in a special ferry. The ferry service is av ailable from 7AM -11PM except from 12 noon till 1:45PM (lunch hour). The fare for crossing a Car/Jeep is approx Rs 160 + Rs 30 toll (including loading/unloading). 33 By bus WBSTC has regular bus service from Esplande to Bakkhali(150 kms).One starts at 7AM in the morning from Esplande and reaches Bakkhali at around 11:30AM and leaves from Bakkhali after half an hour for Kolkata (Esplande). By train The nearest rail station is at Namkhana. There are regular trains from Sealdah via Lakshmikantapur and Kakdwip to Namkhana. The first train starts at around 4AM from Sealdah. Train fare is around Rs 22 and the journey takes around 3 hrs. From Namkhana station you will get a van rickshaw to reach the place from where you need to cross a narrow creek in a small boat. Van fare is Rs 5 per head or Rs 30 if you reserve a van and for crossing the creek you need to pay Rs 1.Then from the bus stand one can get buses for Bakkhali which take around 45mins to 1hr and their fare is Rs 13. The Bakkhali bus stand is very close to all the hotels and just a 5 min walk from the beach. This place is competing with other beach tourist spots – Digha, Mandarmani, Sankarpur. It is good for overnight stay. 6. 3 Uniqueness The slope of Bakkhali is towards the sea hence it is less prone to tidal waves. It is not difficult to observe various invertebrate species like crabs, sea animal, starfish etc. , which were observed along the shore line.While bigger crabs live in the dry sand further away from the sea, the smaller ones live in the muddy shores nearer to the sea. Various species l k ‘S of m ’ ‘H l’ ‘G l ’ ‘H j ’ ‘K k ’ K ’ ‘G ’ . found here. Due to its sandy habitat, Xerophytic vegetation is found here. Also because of its unique flora and fauna, Bakkhali attracts many migratory birds. Its mud banks provide the birds a perfect ground for foraging on the marine invertebrates. For all these natural b iodiversity, Bakkhali attracts lots of tourists. 34 The Forest Department maintains a mangrove trail which is also a source of attraction for tourists.This growth of lucrative tourism again attracts not only private Picture 9: Notable Features of Bakkhali Beach investment (hotel business) but also migrants (some people who work in hotels, sells fast food near the beach etc. ) from fringe areas. Such in surge often creates ecological imbalances. Most of the inhabitants in Bakkhali are migrants settled from Midnapore and Bangladesh (although quite a large no of people can be found as aborigine). Both spring & neap tides are observed in the region, though the duration of high tide is only a few hours in a day.Coastal landforms include: back dunal mudflats, back-swamps coast-parallel older stabilized dune ridges & younger mobile dunes. Low gradient supratidal and inter-tidal beaches with mud bank, tidal flats etc. & offshore bars develop locally in patches in the moist and depressed are as. The sand dunes serve an important function by acting as a barrier between the sea and the habitat near the sea thereby protecting them. These notable features of Bakkhali beach are shown in picture 9. 6. 4 Frasergunj, Henry Island and JwambudwipFish trawlers anchor in Frazergunj Fishing Harbour (picture 10) as co-operative fishing is carried out here under Benfish. Dominant species that are harvested in winter are prawn, promfret and marine bhetki. Marine bhetki is the most valuable species because of its consumption and medicinal values (liver oil and capsule coating are highly demanded by pharmaceutical industries). Entry fee is imposed to restrict entry in Henry Island (picture 11). Fresh water aquaculture (â€Å"b †) .T f we can get an overview of the mangrove canopy. Jambudwip is a deserted island where drying of fishes is practiced (sutki industry).This is mainly an export industry which leads to high export earnings. 35 Picture 10: Frasergunj Picture 11: Henry Isla nd 6. 5 Floral Diversity at Bakkhali & Henry Island (picture 12) Name Scientific Name Location Characteristics Use-Values Gewa Excoecaria agallocha Leaves become orange when rather mature. The timber is used for making wood-charcoal and fire-crackers. Kankra Bruguiera gymnorrhiza Rhizophora apiculata Blume Aegiceras corniculatum West Bengal Govt. Forest Range, Bakkhali. Do. Do. It has breathing roots. Do. It bears small white flowers. Do. Pneumatophores are prominent. Three types of Baen: a) Piyara Baen. b) Kalo Baen. ) Sada Baen. Garjan Kholshi. Baen. Avicennia alba Blume(kalo baen) Avicennia marina (Forsk. ) Vierh. (piyara baen) Chionlata. Goran. Do. Hargoja. Acanthus illicifolius Do. Hental. Phoenix paludosa Roxb. Casuarina sp Famous for good-quality nectar, yielding good quality honey. Source of animal fodder. In humans, it has medicinal use as an antidiabetic. Do. Eucalyptus. Ceriops tagal (Perr. ) Robinson(Motth goran) Eucalyptus obliqua Do. Jhau It has red flowers. It has lon g and thin thorns. Types of Goran:Motth Goran,Jelly Goran. Exotic species from Australia. It has a long, white trunk. Do. It is a shrub having small and sharp thorns.It has thin and long thorns, looks like a short palm. It has long slender leaves. Do. 36 Used in paper & textile industry, also has medicinal values. Provides a camouflaging background for tiger. The dry leaves are used as fuel for cooking. Golpata. Nypa fruticans (Thunb. ) Wurmb. Do. Looks like a short palm tree. Leaves are used as thatching material. Picture 12: Floral Diversity at Bakkhali & Henry Island 6. 6 Faunal Diversity at Bakkhali & Henry Island (picture 13) Name Scientific Name Category Location Characteristics Green Bee Eater Rufous Treepie. Whimbrel. Avifauna (Aves) Do. Green in colour with a long slender beak.White-throated Kingfisher. Spotted deer Estuarine crocodile. Hermit crab. Do. Sea Beach, Bakkhali. W. B. Forest Range, Bakkhali. Sea Beach, Bakkhali. W. B. Forest Range, Bakkhali. Do. Do. Do. Axis axi s Mammal. Reptile. Arthropod. Red Crab. Ocypode sp. Do. Sea Beach, Bakkhali. Do. Sand-bubbler crab. Fiddler crab. Dotilla sp. Do. Do. Uca spp. Do. Marine worm. Diopatra cuprea Annelid. Sea Beach, Bakkhali. Star fish. Jelly fish. Asterias sp. Metridium sp. Echinoderm. Cnidarian. Do. Do. 37 Long tail with black, brown & white colours. Curved beak, white & brown in colour. Colourful (blue,red) with red long beak,built for catching fishes.

The Nature of Leadership

Leadership can refer both to the process of leading, and to those entities that do the leading. Leadership has been a central, and sometimes controversial, topic in the study of organizations. In spite of claims to the contrary, there is substantial evidence that leadership is positively related to a variety of individual and organizational outcomes. Leaders, by their very roles, are responsible for making decisions that help their organizations adapt and succeed in competitive environments (Antonakis et al, 2004). Leaders do not merely impose goals on followers, but work with others to create a shared sense of purpose and direction. Leaders primarily work through and with other people. They also help to establish the conditions that enable others to be effective. Leadership is a function more than a role. Although leadership is often invested in – or expected of – persons in positions of formal authority, leadership encompasses a set of functions that may be performed by any different persons in different roles throughout a community. Leaders manage and managers lead, but the two activities are not synonymous. Management functions can potentially provide leadership; leadership activities can contribute to managing (Antonakis et al, 2004). Reflecting based on the above statements made me realize that effective managers do not only administer the people under him/her but should also be a prime initiator of innovation in which tasks and goals of the department and the organization as a whole. As such, managers should be creative as well as discerning when it comes to analyzing and assessing the resources of the company. Developing and evaluating the efficiency of a particular operation strategy will be helpful in maintaining the overall competitiveness of the business organization. In effect, being able to contemplate the factors that will greatly influence the success of the business should be highly considered through objective investigation of the current conditions of the business environment particularly the industry to which the company belongs. The three major leadership styles: laissez-faire, democratic, and authoritarian leadership. Laissez-Faire leaders take no initiative in directing or managing the group; he/she allows the group to develop on its own, as it has no real authority. Specifically, the leader answers questions, provides information, or gives no reinforcement to the group. Furthermore, the leader evaluates and criticizes little, and is thereby non-threatening. The leader allows the members to make their own decisions (Antonakis et al, 2004). On the other hand, democratic leaders provide directions, but allow the group to make its own decisions. Specifically, members are encouraged by democratic leaders to determine goals and procedures, and to stimulate their self-direction and self-actualization (Antonakis et al, 2004). Moreover, democratic leaders offer suggestions and reinforce members' ideas. After offering these suggestions, providing information, and clarifying ideas, the leader allows the group to make the decision. In leadership styles, the democratic leader is in the middle of the styles. The authoritarian leader is the opposite of the laissez-faire leader. The authoritarian leader sets the agenda, determines the group's policies, assigns tasks to the members, and makes decisions for the group without consulting them. In the end, the leader takes responsibility for the group's progress, but accepts very few suggestions from the group (Antonakis et al, 2004). Rarely do the group members communicate with one another, but they communicate with the leader. Leaders should have vision for the organization. The leaders sell vision by visible management attention, proactive policies and procedures, recognition systems, incremental change expectations, and shared glory (Antonakis et al, 2004). Leaders should also have faith that in change, the organization can accomplish its purpose. Moreover, leaders should have integrity, an ethical sense of justice, fairness, and honesty, so that the members can believe in their word. In regards to leaders in an organization as the life-giving elements in every organisation in that without managers, organizations cannot possibly function properly. Thus, a strong link is noted between a leader’s efficiency and organization performance (Antonakis et al, 2004). It has been recognised that leaders are a significant power behind the progress and successful development of an organisation’s strategy and such success is very much dependent upon their attitudes, behaviour and commitment to their specific responsibilities. The basic tension that underlies many discussions of organisational change is that it would not be necessary if leaders had done their jobs right in the first place. Planned change is usually triggered by the failure of people to create continuously adaptive organizations. Thus, organizational change routinely occurs in the context of failure of some sort. Successful change must involve leaders who initially instigate the change by being visionary, persuasive and consistent. A change agent role is usually responsible to translate the vision to a realistic plan and carry out the plan. It is impossible for a leader to get extraordinary achievement alone. Moreover, teamwork is needed in an unstable market and most especially in the business we are in. If you can’t depend on others, you will never become a leader because the better we are able to innovate if we feel we are more trusted. If a leader trusts his staff, his staff will trust him back. As a leader, trust is needed and that a team should be bonded with the capacity to trust each other (Antonakis et al, 2004) . Leadership comprises the aptitude and ability to inspire and influence the thinking, attitudes, and behavior of other people. Leadership is a process of social influence in which one person is able to enlist the aid and support of other individuals in the achievement of a common task. Although this specification seems relatively simple, the reality of leadership is very complex. Intrapersonal factors such as ideas and emotions, interact with interpersonal processes (i.e., attraction, communication, influence) to have effects on a dynamic external environment. Each of these aspects brings complexity to the leadership process. References Antonakis, John, Cianciolo, Anna T. and Sternberg, Robert. The Nature of Leadership.   United States: Sage Publishing House, 2004.